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to found a theory

  • 1 found a theory

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > found a theory

  • 2 to found a theory

    radīt teoriju

    English-Latvian dictionary > to found a theory

  • 3 found

    1. n геол. поиск, разведка
    2. v основывать; закладывать
    3. v основывать, учреждать; создавать
    4. v учредить на свои средства; создать фонд для содержания

    to found a college — учредить колледж, выделив на это соответствующий фонд

    she found him gone — она обнаружила, что его нет

    5. v создавать, быть основателем, основоположником
    6. v обосновывать, подводить основу; класть в основу
    7. v редк. основываться, опираться
    8. v плавить, выплавлять
    9. v лить, отливать
    10. v варить стекло
    11. a снабжённый всем необходимым; обеспеченный жильём и питанием
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. discovered (adj.) detected; discovered; encountered; located; met; no longer lost; rescued; retrieved; unearthed
    2. caught (verb) caught; descried; detected; encountered; espied; hit on; hit upon; met with; turned up
    3. found (verb) chance on; come across; come on; found; happen on; light on; run across; run into; stumble on
    4. gave/given (verb) delivered; dished out; dispensed; fed; furnished; gave/given; handed; handed over; provided; supplied; transferred; turned over
    5. lay the foundation (verb) begin; erect; fix firmly; give origin to; lay the foundation; pioneer
    6. rest (verb) base; bottom; build; establish; ground; predicate; rest; root in; seat; stay
    7. spotted (verb) located; pinpointed; spotted
    8. start (verb) constitute; create; establish; institute; organise; organize; originate; set up; start

    English-Russian base dictionary > found

  • 4 found

    I [faʋnd] n геол.
    поиск, разведка
    II [faʋnd] v
    1. основывать (город и т. п.); закладывать (фундамент и т. п.)

    to found a memorial /a monument/ - заложить памятник

    2. 1) основывать, учреждать; создавать

    the company [firm] was founded in 1777 - компания [фирма] была учреждена в 1777 г. /существует с 1777 г./

    2) учредить на свои средства; создать фонд для содержания (больницы и т. п.):

    to found a college [a scholarship] - учредить колледж [стипендию], выделив на это соответствующий фонд

    3) создавать, быть основателем, основоположником

    to found a theory [a system of philosophy] - создавать теорию [философскую систему]

    3. обосновывать, подводить основу; класть в основу

    to be ill [well] founded - быть плохо [хорошо] обоснованным

    to found a novel on old legends - положить в основу романа старые предания

    his conclusion is founded on /upon/ very superficial knowledge - его выводы не основаны на достаточно глубоком знании предмета

    4. редк. основываться, опираться

    ♢ to found a family [a dynasty] - стать родоначальником семьи [династии]

    II [faʋnd] v
    1) плавить, выплавлять

    to found iron [steel] - выплавлять чугун [сталь]

    2) лить, отливать

    to found a bell [gun] - отливать колокол [пушку]

    3) варить стекло
    IV
    1. [faʋnd] a
    снабжённый всем необходимым; обеспеченный жильём и питанием
    2. [faʋnd] past и p. p. от find II

    НБАРС > found

  • 5 found

    found [faʊnd]
    1 pt & pp of find
    (a) (furnished, equipped) équipé;
    ∎ the flat is well found l'appartement est bien équipé
    ∎ all found tout compris;
    ∎ £30 a week all found 30 livres la semaine tout compris
    (a) (establish → organization, town) fonder, créer; (→ business) fonder, établir
    (b) (base) fonder, baser;
    ∎ to be founded on (principle, belief, theory, suspicions) être fondé ou basé sur;
    ∎ founded on fact (of story, novel, film) qui est basé sur des faits véridiques;
    ∎ our society is founded on the idea of equality notre société est fondée sur la notion d'égalité
    (c) (cast) fondre
    ►► Art found object objet m trouvé

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > found

  • 6 Theory

       Neurath has likened science to a boat which, if we are to rebuild it, we must rebuild plank by plank while staying afloat in it. The philosopher and the scientist are in the same boat....
       Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distanced objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race. In assimilating this cultural fare we are little more aware of a distinction between report and invention, substance and style, cues and conceptualization, than we are of a distinction between the proteins and the carbohydrates of our material intake. Retrospectively we may distinguish the components of theory-building, as we distinguish the proteins and carbohydrates while subsisting on them. (Quine, 1960, pp. 4-6)
       Theories are usually introduced when previous study of a class of phenomena has revealed a system of uniformities.... Theories then seek to explain those regularities and, generally, to afford a deeper and more accurate understanding of the phenomena in question. To this end, a theory construes those phenomena as manifestations of entities and processes that lie behind or beneath them, as it were. (Hempel, 1966, p. 70)
       A strong approach [to construct validation] looks on construct validation as tough-minded testing of specific hypotheses:
       heoretical concepts are defined conceptually or implicitly by their role in a network of nomological or statistical "laws." The meaning is partially given by the theoretical network, however tentative and as yet impoverished that network may be. Crudely put, you know what you mean by an entity to the extent that statements about it in the theoretical language are linked to statements in the observational language. These statements are about where it's found, what it does, what it's made of. Only a few of those properties are directly tied to observables [p. 136]. In [an early] theory sketch, based upon some experience and data, everything said is conjectural. We have tentative notions about some indicators of the construct with unknown validities [p. 144]. [When we check up empirically on predictions from the model] we are testing the crude theory sketch, we are tightening the network psychometrically, and we are validating the indicators. All of these are done simultaneously [p. 149]. [Extracted with elisions and some paraphrase from Meehl & Golden, 1982.] (Cronbach, 1990, p. 183)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Theory

  • 7 found

    ̈ɪfaund I гл.
    1) начинать строительство, закладывать (фундамент, город)
    2) основывать, учреждать;
    создавать (on/upon) Syn: establish
    3) а) обосновывать, подводить основу б) опираться, основываться( о доводах и т. п.) (on, upon - на) One should always found one's opinion on facts. ≈ Надо всегда слагать свое мнение на основе фактов. Syn: base II гл.
    1) а) плавить (металл) б) лить, отливать (форму) Syn: cast
    2) варить (стекло) III прил.
    1) снабженный всем необходимым The boat is fully found. ≈ Корабль снабжен всем необходимым (оборудованием).
    2) используемый, подручный( о материалах) IV прош. вр. и прич. прош. вр. от find (геология) поиск, разведка основывать (город и т. п.) ;
    закладывать (фундамент и т. п.) - to * a building закладывать здание - to * a memorial /a monument/ заложить памятник основывать, учреждать;
    создавать - to * an association создать общество - the company was *ed in 1777 компания была учреждена в 1777 г. /существует с 1777 г./ учредить на свои средства;
    создать фонд для содержания (больницы и т. п.) - to * a college учредить колледж, выделив на это соответствующий фонд создавать, быть основателем, основоположником - to * a theory создавать теорию обосновывать, подводить основу;
    класть в основу - *ed on facts основанный на фактах - to be ill *ed быть плохо обоснованным - to * a novel on old legends положить в основу романа старые предания - his conclusion is *ed on /upon/ very superficial knowledge его выводы не основаны на достаточно глубоком знании предмета (редкое) основываться, опираться > to * a family стать родоначальником семьи плавить, выплавлять - to * iron выплавлять чугун лить, отливать - to * a bell отливать колокол варить стекло снабженный всем необходимым;
    обеспеченный жильем и питанием - all * на всем готовом past и p.p. от find ~ обосновывать, подводить основу;
    to be well founded быть хорошо обоснованным, убедительным found past & p. p. от find ~ давать основание, обосновывать ~ закладывать (фундамент, город) ~ обосновывать, подводить основу;
    to be well founded быть хорошо обоснованным, убедительным ~ обосновывать ~ опираться, основываться (о доводах и т. п., on, upon - на) ~ основывать, учреждать;
    создавать ~ основывать, учреждать ~ основывать ~ плавить, лить, отливать;
    варить (стекло) ~ снабженный всем необходимым ~ создавать ~ учреждать not ~ вчт. не найден

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > found

  • 8 found

    § საფუძვლის ჩაყრა, დაარსება
    §
    1 იხ. find v.
    2 დაარსება (დააარსებს)
    Tbilisi was founded by King Vakhtang Gorgasali თბილისი მეფე ვახტანგ გორგასალმა დააარსა
    to found a school of thought ფილოსოფიური სკოლის / სისტემის დაარსება / შექმნა
    3 დაფუძნება, დამყარება
    this theory is founded on facts ეს თეორია ფაქტებზეა აგებული / დამყარებული / ფაქტებს ეყრდნობა

    English-Georgian dictionary > found

  • 9 found theory

    Англо-русский словарь по исследованиям и ноу-хау > found theory

  • 10 its proof can be found in

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > its proof can be found in

  • 11 An introduction to the theory of bifurcation as outlined above may be found in [2]

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > An introduction to the theory of bifurcation as outlined above may be found in [2]

  • 12 his theory found no acceptance among scholars

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > his theory found no acceptance among scholars

  • 13 establish

    1. transitive verb
    1) (set up, create, found) schaffen [Einrichtung, Präzedenzfall, Ministerposten]; gründen [Organisation, Institut]; errichten [Geschäft, Lehrstuhl, System]; einsetzen, bilden [Regierung, Ausschuss]; herstellen [Kontakt, Beziehungen] ( with zu); aufstellen [Rekord]; ins Leben rufen, begründen [Bewegung]

    establish one's authority — sich (Dat.) Autorität verschaffen

    2) (secure acceptance for) etablieren

    establish one's reputation — sich (Dat.) einen Namen machen

    3) (prove) beweisen [Schuld, Unschuld, Tatsache]; unter Beweis stellen [Können]; nachweisen [Anspruch]
    4) (discover) feststellen; ermitteln [Umstände, Aufenthaltsort]
    2. reflexive verb

    establish oneself [at or in a place] — sich [an einem Ort] niederlassen

    * * *
    [i'stæbliʃ]
    1) (to settle firmly in a position (eg a job, business etc): He established himself (in business) as a jeweller.) sich niederlassen
    2) (to found; to set up (eg a university, a business): How long has the firm been established?) gründen
    3) (to show to be true; to prove: The police established that he was guilty.) feststellen
    •
    - academic.ru/25046/established">established
    - establishment
    - the Establishment
    * * *
    es·tab·lish
    [ɪˈstæblɪʃ, esˈ-]
    I. vt
    1. (found, set up)
    ▪ to \establish sth etw gründen
    to \establish an account ein Konto eröffnen
    to \establish a beachhead einen Brückenkopf errichten
    to \establish a commission eine Kommission bilden
    to \establish a dictatorship eine Diktatur errichten
    to \establish a home/a household ein Heim/einen Haushalt gründen
    to \establish a new home sich dat ein neues Zuhause einrichten
    to \establish a hospital ein Krankenhaus errichten
    to \establish a rule/theory eine Regel/Theorie aufstellen
    to \establish oneself in business sich akk geschäftlich durchsetzen [o etablieren
    2. (begin)
    ▪ to \establish sth etw einführen
    to \establish contact with sb mit jdm Kontakt [o Fühlung] aufnehmen
    to \establish relations Verbindungen herstellen
    to \establish a relationship with sb eine Beziehung zu jdm aufbauen
    to \establish the rule of law Recht und Ordnung herstellen
    to \establish ties Kontakte knüpfen
    ▪ to \establish sth etw schaffen [o herstellen]
    we have \established parity with wages in other companies wir haben im Lohnniveau mit anderen Firmen gleichgezogen
    to \establish a criterion ein Kriterium festlegen
    to \establish a norm eine Norm definieren
    to \establish a policy eine politische Linie einschlagen
    to \establish a precedent einen Präzedenzfall schaffen
    to \establish priorities Prioritäten setzen
    to \establish a quota eine Quote festlegen
    to \establish a standard/terminology einen Maßstab/eine Terminologie festlegen
    to \establish a world record einen Weltrekord aufstellen
    4. (secure, make firm)
    ▪ to \establish sth etw durchsetzen
    to \establish one's authority over sb [or supremacy] sich dat Autorität gegenüber jdm verschaffen
    to \establish a monopoly ein Monopol errichten
    to \establish order für Ordnung sorgen
    to \establish one's reputation as a sth sich dat einen Namen als etw machen
    to \establish one's rights seine Rechte geltend machen
    ▪ to \establish sth etw zeigen [o demonstrieren]
    to \establish one's superiority to sb/sth sich akk jdm/etw gegenüber als überlegen erweisen
    ▪ to \establish sb/oneself as sth:
    her latest book has \established her as one of our leading novelists ihr jüngstes Buch zeigt, dass sie eine unserer führenden Romanautorinnen ist
    he's \established himself as a dependable source of information er hat sich als verlässliche Informationsquelle erwiesen
    ▪ to \establish sth etw nachweisen
    we've \established that... wir haben festgestellt, dass...
    to \establish a claim einen Anspruch nachweisen
    to \establish the constitutionality of a law die Verfassungsmäßigkeit eines Gesetzes feststellen
    to \establish the facts den Sachverhalt klären
    to \establish the truth die Wahrheit herausfinden
    to \establish where/whether... feststellen, wo/ob...
    ▪ to \establish that... herausfinden, dass...
    7. (declare)
    to \establish one's residence ( form) sich akk niederlassen, seinen Wohnsitz begründen form
    II. vi gedeihen, aufblühen
    * * *
    [I'stblɪʃ]
    1. vt
    1) (= found, set up) gründen; government bilden; laws geben, schaffen; custom, new procedure einführen; relations herstellen, aufnehmen; links anknüpfen; post einrichten, schaffen; power, authority sich (dat) verschaffen; peace stiften; order (wieder) herstellen; list (in publishing) aufstellen, zusammenstellen; reputation sich (dat) verschaffen; precedent setzen; committee einsetzen

    to establish one's reputation as a scholar/writer — sich (dat) einen Namen als Wissenschaftler(in)/Schriftsteller(in) machen

    2) (= prove) fact, innocence beweisen, nachweisen; claim unter Beweis stellen

    we have established that... — wir haben bewiesen or gezeigt, dass...

    3) (= determine) identity, facts ermitteln, feststellen
    4) (= gain acceptance for) product, theory, ideas Anklang or Anerkennung finden für; one's rights Anerkennung finden für
    2. vr
    (in business, profession) sich etablieren, sich niederlassen

    he seems to have established himself as an expert — er scheint sich (dat) einen Ruf als Experte verschafft zu haben

    * * *
    establish [ıˈstæblıʃ] v/t
    1. festsetzen, einrichten, errichten, etablieren:
    establish an account ein Konto eröffnen;
    establish a law ein Gesetz einführen oder erlassen;
    establish a republic eine Republik gründen;
    establish a theory eine Theorie aufstellen
    2. a) jemanden einsetzen, ernennen
    b) einen Ausschuss etc bilden, einsetzen, schaffen
    c) ein Geschäft etablieren, (be)gründen, errichten
    d) seinen Wohnsitz begründen
    3. establish o.s. WIRTSCH sich etablieren, sich niederlassen (beide a. beruflich), engS. ein Geschäft eröffnen
    4. fig jemandes Ruhm, Rechte etc begründen:
    establish one’s reputation as a surgeon sich als Chirurg einen Namen machen
    5. eine Ansicht, Forderung etc durchsetzen, Geltung verschaffen (dat)
    6. Ordnung schaffen, eine Verbindung etc herstellen, diplomatische Beziehungen etc aufnehmen:
    establish contact with sb mit jemandem Fühlung aufnehmen
    7. einen Rekord aufstellen
    8. be-, erweisen, (einwandfrei) nachweisen;
    establish the fact that … die Tatsache beweisen, dass …
    9. die Kirche verstaatlichen: → established 5
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) (set up, create, found) schaffen [Einrichtung, Präzedenzfall, Ministerposten]; gründen [Organisation, Institut]; errichten [Geschäft, Lehrstuhl, System]; einsetzen, bilden [Regierung, Ausschuss]; herstellen [Kontakt, Beziehungen] ( with zu); aufstellen [Rekord]; ins Leben rufen, begründen [Bewegung]

    establish one's authority — sich (Dat.) Autorität verschaffen

    establish one's reputation — sich (Dat.) einen Namen machen

    3) (prove) beweisen [Schuld, Unschuld, Tatsache]; unter Beweis stellen [Können]; nachweisen [Anspruch]
    4) (discover) feststellen; ermitteln [Umstände, Aufenthaltsort]
    2. reflexive verb

    establish oneself [at or in a place] — sich [an einem Ort] niederlassen

    * * *
    (frame) a rule expr.
    eine Regel aufstellen ausdr. v.
    aufbauen v.
    aufstellen v.
    begründen v.
    einrichten v.
    etablieren v.
    festsetzen v.
    gründen v.

    English-german dictionary > establish

  • 14 find

    faɪnd
    1. гл.;
    прош. вр. и прич. прош. вр. - found
    1) а) находить, встречать, обнаруживать( в различных смыслах) ;
    заставать They might find traces of European sojourn on the island. ≈ Можно найти следы присутствия европейцев на острове. He was found dead. ≈ Его нашли мертвым. I found a shilling on the floor. ≈ Я нашел на полу шиллинг. find oneself find time Syn: locate;
    come across, fall in with, meet with;
    discover, learn, unearth Ant: mislay, miss б) сл. красть, воровать в) мат. находить результат, вычислять
    2) а) убеждаться, приходить к заключению, считать, полагать, признавать to find no sense ≈ не видеть смысла I find it necessary to go there. ≈ Я считаю необходимым поехать туда. Syn: ascertain, detect, determine, learn б) юр. устанавливать, выносить решение, признавать что-л. чем-л., признавать (применимость, юридическую силу и т.п.) The jury found for the plaintiff. ≈ Присяжные вынесли решение в пользу истца. They found the verdict of guilty. ≈ Был вынесен вердикт "виновен". To find a bill, there must at least twelve of the grand jury agree. ≈ Чтобы дело было принято к производству, как минимум двенадцать членов большого жюри должны быть "за". find smb. guilty в) делать вывод по записям, свидетельствам In 1276, we find the Emperor and the King of England in constant communication. ≈ В 1276, как следует из записей, император и английский король имели постоянную связь друг с другом.
    3) а) обретать, добиваться, получать;
    прям. перен. достигать find one's account in smth. Syn: reach, arrive б) попадать в цель, доставать The shot found him in the head. ≈ Выстрел пропал ему в голову. Such commodities found little market. ≈ Эти товары плохо продавались. в) доходить( о корреспонденции) Marrion Square will always find us. ≈ Пишите нам на Мэррион Сквер, обязательно дойдет. г) оказываться где-л., в каком-л. состоянии We found ourselves at the precipice. ≈ Мы оказались у обрыва. Lavender found himself entering a drawing-room. ≈ Лавендер понял, что вошел в гостиную. How do you find yourself? ≈ Как дела? know where to find one find in one's heart
    4) а) снабжать, обеспечивать find smb. in smth. ≈ обеспечивать кого-л. чем-л. They find him in clothes. ≈ Они его одевают. five pounds a week and find yourself ≈ пять фунтов в неделю на своих харчах (форма оплаты работы) all found Syn: supply, provide, furnish б) воен. выделять, выставлять (резервы, солдат, другие ресурсы)
    5) охот. поднимать зверя, находить зверя The dogs found. ≈ Псы подняли зверя. ∙ find out how do you find yourself? ≈ как вы себя чувствуете?;
    как поживаете? find way find feet
    2. сущ.
    1) находка, обнаружение (равно как процесс и результат) archaeological find great find lucky find rare find sure find Syn: discovery
    2) своего рода местоимение со значением "чем-л. примечательный (часто в ироническом или отрицательном смысле) человек" Miss Farnell is a true find, I say! ≈ Ну скажу я вам мисс Фарнелл и фрукт! находка - this book is a regular * эта книга - настоящая находка открытие (месторождения и т. п.) (горное) новое месторождение > a sure * (охота) местонахождение зверя;
    человек, которого обязательно найдут /разыщут/ находить, отыскивать - to * means изыскать средства - to * nothing to say не найтись, что сказать - I can't * my book anywhere я нигде не могу найти свою книгу - I have found what I want я нашел, что мне нужно - I run to * a doctor я побежал за врачом - he is not to be found его невозможно найти;
    его нигде нет - the committee must * a suitable man for the job комиссия должна подыскать подходящего человека для этой работы найти (случайно), наткнуться, встретиться - to * a treasure найти клад - he found a coin in the dust он нашел монету в пыли - to * some difficulty in doing smth. встретить затруднения в чем-л. - it is found everywhere это можно встретить где угодно - such men are not often found такие люди не часто встречаются открывать, находить - to * a mistake in the calculations обнаружить ошибку в расчете - to * the answer to the problem разрешить проблему, найти решение вопроса - he found a more modern method он открыл более современный метод - you must take us as you * us принимайте нас такими, какие мы есть обнаруживать - we must leave everything as we * it нужно оставить все как есть /ничего не трогать/ - I found the key missing я обнаружил, что ключа нет - when the doctor came he found him already dead когда пришел врач, он уже был мертв застать, найти ( где-л., за каким-л. занятием) - to * smb. at home застать кого-л. дома - I found everybody out никого не оказалось дома, я никого не застал - she found him gone она обнаружила, что его нет /что он уехал или ушел/ - I found her waiting in the hall я увидел, что она ждет меня в вестибюле - six months later we * him saying the exact opposite и вот полгода спустя он говорит прямо противоположные вещи - Christmas found him still looking for work на рождество он все еще был без работы находить, обретать - to * a good friend in smb. обрести хорошего друга в ком-л. - to * courage to... найти в себе мужество, чтобы... - to * oneself найти или обрести себя, свое призвание;
    чувствовать себя - she suddenly found herself and left the family to work in a hospital она внезапно поняла, в чем ее призвание, и уехала из дома, чтобы работать в больнице - to help the student to * himself as an individual помочь учащемуся осознать себя как личность - how do you * yourself today? как вы себя чувствуете сегодня? - his theory found no acceptance among scholars его теория не получила признания в ученых кругах - the new product found few buyers на новый товар почти не было спроса достигать, попадать - the bullet found its mark пуля попала в цель - the blow found his chin удар пришелся ему по подбородку - to * bottom in a lake коснуться дна озера считать, находить - to * it impossible to... считать невозможным сделать что-л. - to * the terms reasonable находить условия приемлемыми - I * it pays to get up early я считаю, что имеет смысл рано вставать - this letter, I *, arrived yesterday это письмо, как я вижу, пришло вчера - how do you * him? как вы его находите? убеждаться, приходить к заключению - you will * that I am right вы убедитесь, что я прав - I found that I was mistaken я понял, что ошибся - I was surprised to * that... я с удивлением увидел, что... - it has been found that... выяснилось, что... - you may * it do you good может оказаться, что это пойдет вам на пользу составить мнение - I found him a sensible man он показался мне разумным человеком - I * smth. repellent about the man мне кажется, что в этом человеке есть что-то отталкивающее - she found him pleasant to talk to она нашла в нем приятного собеседника (юридическое) выносить приговор, определение, решение - they found a verdict of guilty они вынесли определение о виновности - the jury found the prisoner guilty присяжные признали подсудимого виновным - he was found guilty его признали виновным - to * that the deceased had been murdered by a person unknown признать, что покойный был убит неизвестным лицом - to * for the plaintiff решить в пользу истца удостоверять действительность документа обеспечивать, субсидировать - to * one's son with everything necessary снабдить своего сына всем необходимым - the State *s half of the sum, leaving the parent to * the rest государство оплачивает половину (расходов), глава семьи - остальное - $2 a week and * yourself 2 доллара в неделю без питания - all /everything/ found на всем готовом - wages $10 and all found жалованье 10 долларов на всем готовом (математика) определять, вычислять - to ( try to) * the value of the unknown quantity определять неизвестную величину (военное) выделять, выставлять - to * the advance guard выделить авангард( охота) взять след выбрать, выделить, уделить (время) - I can't * time to do it у меня нет времени на это, я не могу выбрать время /собраться/ сделать это to find oneself somewhere оказаться, очутиться где-л. - I found myself in a dark forest я оказался в темном лесу - when he awoke he found himself in hospital когда он проснулся, то увидел, что находится в больнице - you will * yourself in prison soon if you act in that way будешь себя так вести, в тюрьму угодишь - to find oneself in a state оказаться, очутиться в каком-л. положении - she found herself in a dilemma она очутилась в затруднительном положении - he found himself at a loss он растерялся, он не знал, что ему делать - to find oneself doing smth. сделать что-л. неожиданно для себя - when I heard the details I found myself crying когда я услышал подробности, у меня покатились слезы ( я заплакал) - I found myself saying "yes" и вдруг неожиданно для себя я согласился - to find smb., oneself in smth. обеспечивать кого-л., себя чем-л. - she pays for her board and lodging but her father *s her in clothes она платит за стол и квартиру, а отец одевает ее - we are found in everything - house, food мы всем обеспечены - и жильем и пищей - the house was well found in plate and linen в доме было много посуды и столового белья - he was well found in classical learning он обладал большими познаниями в области античной культуры > to * one's way попасть;
    пробраться, получить доступ > how did it * its way into this book? каким образом это попало в книгу? > how did he * his way into the laboratory? как ему удалось проникнуть в лабораторию? > to * one's bearings ориентироваться, определять свое местонахождение;
    осваиваться > wait till he *s his bearing he'll show himself обожди, он еще покажет себя, дай ему только освоиться > to * one's feet стоять на ножках, ходить (о ребенке) ;
    освоиться, стать на ноги;
    оправиться (после неудачи и т. п.) > to * one's tongue /voice/ вновь обрести дар речи > to * fault( with) придраться к кому-л., чему-л.;
    ворчать, жаловаться на кого-л., что-л.! to * favour снискать /заслужить/ чье-л. расположение > to * it in one's heart to do smth. решиться на что-л. > I can't * it in my heart to scold him у меня не хватает духу бранить его all found на всем готовом;
    100 a year and all found 100 фунтов (стерлингов) в год на всем готовом ~ попасть (в цель) ;
    the blow found his chest удар пришелся ему в грудь find воен. выделять, выставлять;
    find in: to find (smb.) (oneself) (in smth.) обеспечивать (кого-л.) (себя) (чем-л.) ~ выносить определение ~ выносить приговор ~ выносить решение ~ мат. вычислять ~ достигать ~ (found) находить;
    встречать;
    признавать;
    обнаруживать;
    заставать;
    to find no sense не видеть смысла ~ находить ~ находка;
    a great find ценная находка;
    a sure find охот. местонахождение зверя ~ находка ~ обеспечивать ~ обнаруживать ~ обрести;
    получить, добиться;
    to find one's account( in smth.) убедиться в выгоде (чего-л.) ;
    использовать( что-л.) в своих (личных) интересах ~ охот. поднять( зверя) ~ попасть (в цель) ;
    the blow found his chest удар пришелся ему в грудь ~ приходить к заключению ~ решать, выносить решение ~ снабжать;
    обеспечивать;
    2 a week and find yourself 2 фунта (стерлингов) в неделю на своих харчах ~ субсидировать ~ убеждаться, приходить к заключению;
    считать;
    I find it necessary to go there я считаю необходимым поехать туда ~ удостоверять действительность документа ~ юр. устанавливать;
    выносить решение;
    to find (smb.) guilty признать (кого-л.) виновным ~ устанавливать фактические обстоятельства по делу ~ for выносить определение в пользу ~ for выносить решение в пользу ~ for решать в пользу ~ for the accused решать в пользу ответчика ~ for the plaintiff решать в пользу истца ~ юр. устанавливать;
    выносить решение;
    to find (smb.) guilty признать (кого-л.) виновным guilty: find ~ признавать виновным find воен. выделять, выставлять;
    find in: to find (smb.) (oneself) (in smth.) обеспечивать (кого-л.) (себя) (чем-л.) ~ (found) находить;
    встречать;
    признавать;
    обнаруживать;
    заставать;
    to find no sense не видеть смысла ~ обрести;
    получить, добиться;
    to find one's account (in smth.) убедиться в выгоде (чего-л.) ;
    использовать (что-л.) в своих (личных) интересах to ~ one's feet научиться ходить (о ребенке) to ~ one's feet стать на ноги, обрести самостоятельность;
    набить руку to ~ one's way достигнуть;
    to find one's way home добраться домой to ~ one's way проникнуть;
    пробраться;
    how did it find its way into print? как это попало в печать? to ~ one's way достигнуть;
    to find one's way home добраться домой to ~ oneself найти свое призвание;
    обрести себя;
    to find time улучить время to ~ (smb.) out разоблачить( кого-л.) ;
    to find out for oneself добраться до истины ~ out узнать, разузнать, выяснить;
    понять;
    раскрыть (обман, тайну) ;
    to find out the truth узнать правду to ~ (smb.) out разоблачить (кого-л.) ;
    to find out for oneself добраться до истины ~ out узнать, разузнать, выяснить;
    понять;
    раскрыть (обман, тайну) ;
    to find out the truth узнать правду to ~ oneself найти свое призвание;
    обрести себя;
    to find time улучить время ~ находка;
    a great find ценная находка;
    a sure find охот. местонахождение зверя to ~ one's way проникнуть;
    пробраться;
    how did it find its way into print? как это попало в печать? how do you ~ yourself? как вы себя чувствуете?;
    как поживаете? ~ убеждаться, приходить к заключению;
    считать;
    I find it necessary to go there я считаю необходимым поехать туда ~ находка;
    a great find ценная находка;
    a sure find охот. местонахождение зверя sure: ~ bind, ~ find посл. = крепче запрешь, вернее найдешь they ~ him in clothes они его одевают find воен. выделять, выставлять;
    find in: to find (smb.) (oneself) (in smth.) обеспечивать (кого-л.) (себя) (чем-л.) ~ снабжать;
    обеспечивать;
    2 a week and find yourself 2 фунта (стерлингов) в неделю на своих харчах all found на всем готовом;
    100 a year and all found 100 фунтов (стерлингов) в год на всем готовом

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > find

  • 15 find

    1. [faınd] n
    1) находка

    this book [my new secretary] is a regular find - эта книга [мой новый секретарь] - настоящая находка

    2) открытие (месторождения и т. п.)
    3) горн. новое месторождение

    ♢ a sure find - а) охот. местонахождение зверя; б) человек, которого обязательно найдут /разыщут/

    2. [faınd] v (found)
    I
    1. 1) находить, отыскивать

    to find nothing to say - не найтись, что сказать

    I have found what I want - я нашёл, что мне нужно

    he is not to be found - его невозможно найти; его нигде нет

    the committee must find a suitable man for the job - комиссия должна подыскать подходящего человека для этой работы

    2) найти (случайно), наткнуться, встретиться

    to find some difficulty in doing smth. - встретить затруднение в чём-л.

    2. открывать, находить

    to find the answer to the problem - разрешить проблему, найти решение вопроса

    you must take us as you find us - принимайте нас такими, какие мы есть

    3. 1) обнаруживать

    we must leave everything as we find it - нужно оставить всё как есть /ничего не трогать/

    I found the key missing - я обнаружил, что ключа нет

    when the doctor came he found him already dead - когда пришёл врач, он уже был мёртв

    2) застать, найти (где-л., за каким-л. занятием)

    to find smb. at home - застать кого-л. дома

    I found everybody out - никого не оказалось дома, я никого не застал

    she found him gone - она обнаружила, что его нет /что он уехал или ушёл/

    I found her waiting in the hall - я увидел, что она ждёт меня в вестибюле

    six months later we find him saying the exact opposite - и вот полгода спустя он говорит прямо противоположные вещи

    Christmas found him still looking for work - на рождество он всё ещё был без работы

    4. находить, обретать

    to find a good friend [a supporter] in smb. - обрести хорошего друга [сторонника] в ком-л.

    to find courage to... - найти в себе мужество, чтобы...

    to find oneself - а) найти или обрести себя, своё призвание; she suddenly found herself and left the family to work in a hospital - она внезапно поняла, в чём её призвание, и уехала из дома, чтобы работать в больнице; to help the student to find himself as an individual - помочь учащемуся осознать себя как личность; б) чувствовать себя; how do you find yourself today? - как вы себя чувствуете сегодня?

    his theory found no acceptance among scholars - его теория не получила признания в учёных кругах

    5. достигать, попадать
    6. 1) считать, находить

    to find it impossible [necessary, easy, difficult] to... - считать невозможным [необходимым, лёгким, трудным] сделать что-л.

    I find it pays to get up early - я считаю, что имеет смысл рано вставать

    this letter, I find, arrived yesterday - это письмо, как я вижу, пришло вчера

    how do you find him? - как вы его находите?

    2) убеждаться, приходить к заключению

    you will find that I am right - вы убедитесь, что я прав

    I found that I was mistaken - я понял, что ошибся

    I was surprised to find that... - я с удивлением увидел, что...

    it has been found that... - выяснилось, что...

    you may find it do you good - может оказаться, что это пойдёт вам на пользу

    3) составить мнение

    I find smth. repellent about the man - мне кажется, что в этом человеке есть что-то отталкивающее

    7. юр.
    1) выносить приговор, определение, решение

    the jury found the prisoner guilty - присяжные признали подсудимого виновным

    he was found guilty [innocent] - его признали виновным [невиновным]

    to find that the deceased had been murdered by a person unknown - признать, что покойный был убит неизвестным лицом

    to find for [against] the plaintiff - решить в пользу [против] истца

    2) удостоверять действительность документа
    8. обеспечивать, субсидировать [см. тж. II Б 3]

    to find one's son with everything necessary - снабдить своего сына всем необходимым

    the State finds half of the sum, leaving the parent to find the rest - государство оплачивает половину (расходов), глава семьи - остальное

    £2 a week and find yourself - 2 фунта в неделю без питания

    all /everything/ found - на всём готовом

    wages £10 and all found - жалованье 10 фунтов на всём готовом

    9. мат. определять, вычислять

    to (try to) find the value of the unknown quantity - определять неизвестную величину

    10. воен. выделять, выставлять
    11. охот. взять след
    II А
    выбрать, выделить, уделить ( время)

    I can't find time to do it - у меня нет времени на это, я не могу выбрать время /собраться/ сделать это

    II Б
    1. 1) to find oneself somewhere оказаться, очутиться где-л.

    when he awoke he found himself in hospital - когда он проснулся, то увидел, что находится в больнице

    you will find yourself in prison soon if you act in that way - будешь себя так вести, в тюрьму угодишь

    2) to find oneself in á state оказаться, очутиться в каком-л. положении

    she found herself in a dilemma - она очутилась в затруднительном положении

    he found himself at a loss - он растерялся, он не знал, что ему делать

    2. to find oneself doing smth. сделать что-л. неожиданно для себя

    when I heard the details I found myself crying - когда я услышал подробности, у меня покатились слёзы /я заплакал/

    I found myself saying ❝yes❞ - и вдруг неожиданно для себя я согласился

    3. to find smb., oneself in smth. обеспечивать кого-л., себя чем-л. [см. тж. II 8]

    she pays for her board and lodging but her father finds her in clothes - она платит за стол и квартиру, а отец одевает её

    we are found in everything - house, food - мы всем обеспечены - и жильём и пищей

    the house was well found in plate and linen - в доме было много посуды и столового белья

    he was well found in classical learning - он обладал большими познаниями в области античной культуры

    ♢

    to find one's way - попасть; пробраться, получить доступ

    how did it find its way into this book? - каким образом это попало в книгу?

    how did he find his way into the laboratory? - как ему удалось проникнуть в лабораторию?

    to find one's bearings - а) ориентироваться, определять своё местонахождение; б) осваиваться

    wait till he finds his bearing he'll show himself - обожди, он ещё покажет себя, дай ему только освоиться

    to find one's feet - а) стоять на ножках, ходить ( о ребёнке); б) освоиться, стать на ноги; в) оправиться (после неудачи и т. п.)

    to find one's tongue /voice/ - вновь обрести дар речи

    to find fault (with) см. fault I 3

    to find favour см. favour I 1

    to find it in one's heart to do smth. - решиться на что-л.

    I can't find it in my heart to scold him - у меня не хватает духу бранить его

    НБАРС > find

  • 16 Heaviside, Oliver

    [br]
    b. 18 May 1850 London, England
    d. 2 February 1925 Torquay, Devon, England
    [br]
    English physicist who correctly predicted the existence of the ionosphere and its ability to reflect radio waves.
    [br]
    Brought up in poor, almost Dickensian, circumstances, at the age of 13 years Heaviside, a nephew by marriage of Sir Charles Wheatstone, went to Camden House Grammar School. There he won a medal for science, but he was forced to leave because his parents could not afford the fees. After a year of private study, he began his working life in Newcastle in 1870 as a telegraph operator for an Anglo-Dutch cable company, but he had to give up after only four years because of increasing deafness. He therefore proceeded to spend his time studying theoretical aspects of electrical transmission and communication, and moved to Devon with his parents in 1889. Because the operation of many electrical circuits involves transient phenomena, he found it necessary to develop what he called operational calculus (which was essentially a form of the Laplace transform calculus) in order to determine the response to sudden voltage and current changes. In 1893 he suggested that the distortion that occurred on long-distance telephone lines could be reduced by adding loading coils at regular intervals, thus creating a matched-transmission line. Between 1893 and 1912 he produced a series of writings on electromagnetic theory, in one of which, anticipating a conclusion of Einstein's special theory of relativity, he put forward the idea that the mass of an electric charge increases with its velocity. When it was found that despite the curvature of the earth it was possible to communicate over very great distances using radio signals in the so-called "short" wavebands, Heaviside suggested the presence of a conducting layer in the ionosphere that reflected the waves back to earth. Since a similar suggestion had been made almost at the same time by Arthur Kennelly of Harvard, this layer became known as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1891. Institution of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1924. Honorary PhD Gottingen. Honorary Member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
    Bibliography
    1872. "A method for comparing electro-motive forces", English Mechanic (July).
    1873. Philosophical Magazine (February) (a paper on the use of the Wheatstone Bridge). 1889, Electromagnetic Waves.
    Further Reading
    I.Catt (ed.), 1987, Oliver Heaviside, The Man, St Albans: CAM Publishing.
    P.J.Nahin, 1988, Oliver Heaviside, Sage in Solitude: The Life and Works of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York.
    J.B.Hunt, The Maxwellians, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Heaviside, Oliver

  • 17 Lovelock, James Ephraim

    [br]
    b. 26 July 1919 Brixton, London, England
    [br]
    English biologist and philosopher, inventor of the microwave oven and electron capture detector.
    [br]
    Lovelock was brought up in Brixton in modest circumstances. At the age of 4 he was given a toy electrical set, which first turned his attention towards the study of science. From the Strand School, Brixton, he went on to the universities of Manchester and London, and after graduating in science, in 1941 he joined the National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, as a staff scientist, remaining there for twenty years. During the early 1950s, he and his colleagues were engaged in research into freezing live animals and bringing them back to life by heating: Lovelock was struck by the intense pain this process caused the animals, and he sought a more humane method. He tried diathermy or internal heating through the effect of a continuous wave magnetron borrowed from the Navy. He found that the animals were brought back to life painlessly, and impressed with his success he tried baking a potato for his lunch in the apparatus and found that it cooked amazingly quickly compared with the one hour normally needed in an ordinary oven. Lovelock had invented the microwave oven, but its commercial possibilities were not at first realized.
    In the late 1950s he invented the electron capture detector, which proved to be more sensitive than any other analytical equipment in detecting and measuring toxic substances. The apparatus therefore had obvious uses in testing the quality of the environment and so offered a tremendous boost to the "green" movement. In 1961 he was invited to joint the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to employ the apparatus in an attempt to detect life in space.
    In the early 1970s Lovelock relinquished his biological work in order to devote his attention to philosophical matters, specifically to develop his theory of the Universe, now widely celebrated as the "Gaia theory". In this controversial theory, Lovelock regards our planet and all its living beings, including humans, as a single living organism.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    CBE 1990. FRS 1974. Many academic awards and honorary degrees. Visiting Professor, University of Reading 1967–90.
    Bibliography
    1979, Gaia.
    1983, The Great Extinction.
    1988, The Ages of Gaia.
    1991, Gaia: The Practical Science of Planetary Medicine.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Lovelock, James Ephraim

  • 18 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 19 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 20 prove

    pru:v
    1) (to show to be true or correct: This fact proves his guilt; He was proved guilty; Can you prove your theory?) probar
    2) (to turn out, or be found, to be: His suspicions proved (to be) correct; This tool proved very useful.) resultar
    •
    prove vb demostrar / probar
    can you prove that Dan stole the money? ¿puedes demostrar que Dan robó el dinero?
    tr[prʊːv]
    transitive verb (pt proved, pp proved o proven tr['prʊːvən], ger proving)
    1 (show to be true) probar, demostrar
    2 (turn out to be) demostrar
    1 (turn out) resultar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to prove oneself dar pruebas de valor, demostrar su valía
    to prove somebody right dar a alguien la razón, demostrar que alguien tiene razón
    prove ['pru:v] v, proved ; proved or proven ['pru:və n] ; proving vt
    1) test: probar
    2) demonstrate: probar, demostrar
    prove vi
    : resultar
    it proved effective: resultó efectivo
    v.
    • argüir v.
    • comprobar v.
    • contestar v.
    • demostrar v.
    • estatuir v.
    • evidenciar v.
    • probar v.
    • resultar v.
    • verificar v.
    pruːv
    1.
    (past proved; past p proved or proven) transitive verb
    1) (verify, demonstrate) \<\<theory/statement\>\> probar*; \<\<theorem/innocence\>\> probar*, demostrar*; \<\<loyalty/courage\>\> demostrar*

    can you prove where you were that night? — ¿tiene pruebas de dónde estaba usted aquella noche?

    to prove somebody right/wrong — demostrar* que alguien tiene razón or está en lo cierto/está equivocado

    2)
    a) ( test) \<\<weapon/system\>\> probar*
    b) ( Law) \<\<will\>\> comprobar*, verificar*

    2.
    v refl

    to prove oneself: he was given three months to prove himself — le dieron tres meses para que demostrara su valía


    3.
    vi
    1) ( turn out) resultar
    2) ( Culin) \<\<dough\>\> levar, leudar
    [pruːv] (pt proved) (pp proved or proven)
    1. VT
    1) (=give proof of) [+ theory, statement] demostrar, probar; (one's love, loyalty, strength) demostrar

    my son was murdered, and I'm going to prove it — a mi hijo lo asesinaron, y voy a demostrarlo or probarlo

    can you prove it? — ¿lo puede demostrar or probar?

    you say you love me, so prove it — dices que me quieres, pues demuéstralo or pruébalo

    • you can't prove anything against me — usted no tiene ninguna prueba en mi contra, usted no puede demostrar or probar nada en mi contra

    • it just proves how stupid he is — simplemente demuestra or prueba lo tonto que es

    • to prove sb's innocence, prove sb innocent — demostrar or probar la inocencia de algn

    • to prove one's point — demostrar que uno está en lo cierto or tiene razón

    she took him to court just to prove a point — lo llevó a los tribunales simplemente para demostrar or probar que estaba en lo cierto or que ella tenía razón

    • it's been scientifically proven or proved — se ha probado or demostrado científicamente, ha sido probado or demostrado científicamente

    • to prove that — demostrar que, probar que

    that proves that she did it — eso demuestra or prueba que ella lo hizo

    • she wants to prove to herself that she can still hold down a job — quiere demostrarse a sí misma que todavía puede mantener un trabajo

    • what are you trying to prove? — ¿qué intentas demostrar or probar?

    • it's difficult to prove what's going on — es difícil demostrar or probar lo que está pasando

    • whether he was right remains to be proved — aún falta por demostrar or probar si tenía razón

    everyone said that we would fail but we proved them wrong — todo el mundo decía que fracasaríamos, pero demostramos que estaban equivocados

    2) (=verify) comprobar
    3)

    • to prove o.s. — demostrar lo que uno vale

    4) (=test out) poner a prueba, someter a prueba
    5) (Jur)

    • to prove a will — homologar un testamento

    2. VI
    1) (=turn out) resultar

    the temptation proved too much for her — la tentación resultó demasiado grande para ella, no pudo resistir la tentación

    2) (Culin) [dough] leudarse
    * * *
    [pruːv]
    1.
    (past proved; past p proved or proven) transitive verb
    1) (verify, demonstrate) \<\<theory/statement\>\> probar*; \<\<theorem/innocence\>\> probar*, demostrar*; \<\<loyalty/courage\>\> demostrar*

    can you prove where you were that night? — ¿tiene pruebas de dónde estaba usted aquella noche?

    to prove somebody right/wrong — demostrar* que alguien tiene razón or está en lo cierto/está equivocado

    2)
    a) ( test) \<\<weapon/system\>\> probar*
    b) ( Law) \<\<will\>\> comprobar*, verificar*

    2.
    v refl

    to prove oneself: he was given three months to prove himself — le dieron tres meses para que demostrara su valía


    3.
    vi
    1) ( turn out) resultar
    2) ( Culin) \<\<dough\>\> levar, leudar

    English-spanish dictionary > prove

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